CONJUCTIONS..

CONJUNCTIONS

• Conjunctions are words used as joiners.
• Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.

A conjunction is a word which connects two words or clauses or sentences and shows the relation between them. They are used to avoid making the text seem like bullet points and to make the text flow.

E.g.:

1. Jai saw a dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Jai brought the dog home.
2. Jai saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he brought the dog home.

Here, ‘and’ and ‘so’ are conjunctions which are used to join the sentences and show the relation between them.

There are three main categories of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
2. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

These conjunctions are used to link or join two words or phrases that are equally important and complete in terms of grammar when compared with each other. This is to say, the sentences or words do not depend anything to give themselves meaning.

• Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
•  Words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

• coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

• Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

• When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases or subordinate clause, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.

• A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases or
• Subordinate clauses create a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course are, and, but and or.

AND

1. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another:
2. “Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response.”

• To suggest that one idea is the result of another:
• “While heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house.”
• To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage):
• “Jules is brilliant, and Shirley has a pleasant personality.”

• To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage.)
• “London is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight.”

• To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative):
• “Use your credit cards frequently and you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.”

• To suggest a kind of “comment” on the first clause:
• “Clause became addicted to gambling – and that surprised no one who knew him.”

BUT

1. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause:
2. “Joey lost a fortune in THE STOCK MARKET, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably.”
3. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way. (sometimes replaced by on the contrary):
4. “The club never invested but used the services of a sage investment counselor.”
5. To connect two ideas with the meaning of “with the exception of” (and then the second word takes over as subject):
6. “Everybody but Golden breath is trying out for team.”

OR

1. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other:
2. “You can study hard for this exam or you can fail.”
3. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives:
4. “We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.”
5. To suggest a refinement of the first clause:
6. “Smith college is the premiere all-women’s college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae.”
7. To suggest restatement or “correction” of the first part of the sentence:
8. “There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us.”
9. To suggest a negative condition:
10. “The New Hampshire state motto is rather grim “Live free or die.”
11. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above):
12. “They must approve his political style, or they wouldn’t keep electing him mayor.”

The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most commonly used as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):

• He is neither sane nor brilliant.
• That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

It can be used with other negative expressions:

• That is not what I meant to say, nor you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.

It is possible to use nor without preceding negative element, nut it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:

• George’s handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.

The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings : in addition (“yet another cause of trouble” or “a simple yet noble woman”), even (“yet more expensive”), still (“he is yet a novice”), eventually (“they may yet win”), and so soon as now (“he’s not here yet”). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like “nevertheless” or “but”. The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.

• John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
• The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet the continued to play golf every day.

In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun, subject of the second clause (“they”, in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear:

“The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day.”

Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable

The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction “for” is probably not a good idea, except when you’re singing “For he’s a jolly good fellow”.  “For” has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:

• John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company’s board of trustees.
• Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.

• Correlative conjunctions:

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.

• She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
• Polonius said, “Neither a borrower nor a lender be.”
• Whether you win this race or lose it doesn’t matter as long as you do your best.
• Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form
• Is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.

• These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

• Conjunctive adverbs:
• The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas.
• These conjunctions join independent clauses together.
• The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

after all                in addition                   next

also                      incidentally                 nonetheless

as a result            indeed                        on the contrary

besides                in fact                           on the other hand

consequently       in other words             otherwise

finally                   instead                        still

for example          likewise                      then

furthermore           meanwhile                 thus

hence                     nevertheless             therefore

however

Punctuation:

Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

Conjunctive adverbs can also appear at the start of a sentence or clause to indicate result, concession, apposition, addition, time, contrast, summary or reinforcement.

• Result: therefore, consequently, of course
• Concession: nevertheless, yet, still, after all, of course
• Apposition:  for example, for instance, that is, namely, in other words
• Time: meanwhile, in the meantime
• Addition: moreover, furthermore, also, in addition, likewise, further
• Summary: thus, in conclusion, then
• Reinforcement: further, in particular, indeed, above all, in fact

When conjunctive adverbs function this way, they are separated from the rest of sentence with a comma. In such cases, the conjunctive adverb needs a comma after it because it is a phrase appearing before an independent clause. Note the commas in the following sentences.

• Therefore, I will eat eggs.
• Still, it sounds like a good idea.
• In other words, grammar is a useful skill.
• Likewise, all the students should embrace the sad little conjunctive adverbs.
• Meanwhile, the conjunctive adverbs sat pouting in the corner.
• However, we should not mock conjunctive adverbs.
• Thus, the conjunctive adverbs will bow before their masters, the cruel semicolons.
• Above all, we must realize conjunctive adverbs are an important part of the rammatical ecosystem.

Finally, sometimes conjunctive adverbs try to pretend they are full conjunctions and hook two independent clauses together. This pretension is indeed a sad travesty! The are not full conjunctions, and they can’t do that job by themselves. Typically, they lurk just behind a semicolon that does the real job of joining two independent clauses. A comma should always follow the conjunctive adverb in such instances.

• The gods thundered in the heaves; furthermore, the mortals below cowered in fear.
• The bank robber dodged the bullet; however, Joey was shot 17 times in the tibia.
• Susan appreciated the flowers; nevertheless, a Corvette would be a finer gift.
• Dr. Linda is a grammar tyrant; thus, she requires correct punctuation.
• She will go on a blind date with George; however, he is really ugly fellow.
• The conjunctive adverbs pretend they are conjunctions; however, the semicolon is what really connects the two clauses together.

• Note that if students use comma instead of a semicolon in the examples above, they have created comma splice. Such formations absolutely require the semicolon in front of the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

• Subordinating conjunctions:
• A subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of a subordinate (or dependent) clause and establishes the relation between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
• The words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions:

after                             in order (that)                 unless

although                      insofar as                           until

as                                in that                                 when

as far as                       lest                                    whenever

as soon as                   no matter how                   where

as if                              now that                            wherever

as though                     once                                  whether

because                       provided (that)                while

before                          since                                   why

even if                          so that

even though                supposing (that)

how                             than

if                                  that      

inasmuch as               though

in case (that)          till

• Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause dependent (“subordinate”) upon the other.
• A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.
• A subordinating conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunction does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

• He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
• Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
• Unless we act now, all is lost.

Punctuation note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a comma.

• The case of like and as.

Strictly speaking the word ’like’ is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase (“My brother is tall like my father”), but it should not be used to introduce a clause(“My brother can’t play piano like as he did before the accident ”) or “It looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America’s national sport.”. To introduce a clause, it’s good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.

• Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
• It looks like as if it’s going to snow this afternoon.
• Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.

In formal, academic text, it’s a good idea to reverse the use of ‘like’ for situation in which similarities are being pointed out:

• The community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.

However, when you are listing things that have similarities such as is probably more suitable:

• The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such asMarx Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.

Omitting that:

 The word ‘that’ is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the “expletive that”. Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but the very fact of the easy omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we can happily omit that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):

• Isabel knew (that) she was about to be fired.
• She definitely felt (that) her fellow employees hadn’t supported her.
• I hope (that) she doesn’t blame me.

Sometimes omitting that creates a break in the flow of sentence, a break that can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:

• The problem is that production in her department has dropped.
• Remember, that we didn’t have these problems before she started working here.

As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without ‘that’, if no ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit ‘that’. Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction that:

• When a time element intervenes between the verb and clause:
• “The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent.” (notice the position of “yesterday”)
• When the verb of clause is long delayed:
• “Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of the last year were worse than previously thought.”

(Notice the distance between the subject “losses” and its verb, “were”)

• When a second that can clear up who said or did what:
• “The CEO said that Isabel’s department was slacking, and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter.” (did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel’s department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
• Beginning a sentence with “Because”

Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with a subordinating conjunction because retains a mysterious grip on people’s sense of writing proprieties. This might come out because a sentence that begins with because could end up well fragment if one is not careful to follow up the ‘because clause’ with an independent clause.

• Because e-mail now plays such a role in our communication industry.

When “because clause” is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of the position of the clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with it:

• Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communication industry, the postal service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.

Use a coordinating conjunction when you want to give equal emphasis to two main clauses.

Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than the one in the subordination clause.

• Ex: Diana started dreamily at the handsome Mr. Matt, but Olivia, who hated economics, furiously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring class.

While Diana was staring dreamily at the handsome Mr. Matt, Olivia seriously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring economic class that she hated.

Punctuate coordinate conjunctions carefully:

When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use comma.

While I am at work, my dog Fluffy sleeps on the bed, and my cat Kittie naps in the bathtub.

You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses.

• My dog Fluffy has too many fleas and too much hair.
• My cat Kittie has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality.

When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the coordinating conjunctions.

• Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Couteau, the parakeet, have consumed another of Kittie’s days.

You can begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction.

If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, keep three things in mind:

• Be sure that a main clause follows the coordinating conjunction.
• Do not use a coordinating conjunction to begin every sentence. Use this option only when it makes the flow of your ideas more effective.
• Do not use comma after the coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are not transitional expressions like for example or first of all. You will rarely use punctuation after them.

• Flying down the bumpy path, Alice hit a rock with the front wheel of her mountain bike, flew over the handlebars, and crashed into a clump of prickly palmetto bushes. Yet even this accident would not deter her from completing the race.
• Only when an interrupter immediately follows the coordinating conjunction do you need to use the commas. Read the following example:

• We hoped that decorating the top of Christine’s cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, but to our amazement, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth, chewed and swallowed.

Common mistakes in the use of some conjunctions:

Scarcely and hardly

These words are followed by than or before, not than.

• Hardly had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. OR scarcely had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. (NOT Hardly had I entered the room, than……)

No sooner is followed by than, not when.

• No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

A s you can see, the adverbs hardly, scarcely and no sooner are all negative expressions. When a negative expression comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use inverted word order. That means the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.

These adverbs can also go in mid-position. In that case, we use normal word order.

• I had hardly entered the room when a strange creature ran out.
• I had scarcely solved one problem before another cropped up.

Not only…. but also

This correlative conjunction is often confused. When using not only…. but also, you must make sure that both parts of this conjunction go before words of the same parts of speech.

• The controversy not only damages our image but also decreases investor confidence.

Here not only and but also go before two verbs.

• She was not only arrogant but also rude.

Here not only and but also go before two adjectives.

Lest:

The conjunction lest is not very common in modern English. This word has a negative meaning. Therefore, it should not be used with not. The only auxiliary verb that can follow lest is should.

• Work hard lest you should fail. (or) Work hard lest you fail. (NOT work hard lest you should not fail.)

The same idea can be expressed using the expression or else.

• Work hard, or else you will fail.
• Leave on time, or else you will miss the train.